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Infanticide
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Intentional killing of human offspring
This article is about infanticide in humans. For infanticide among
animals, see Infanticide (zoology). For practices of killing newborns
within 24 hours of a child's birth, see Neonaticide. For the killing of
older children by a parent, see Filicide.
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Infanticide (or infant homicide) is the intentional killing of infants
or offspring. Infanticide was a widespread practice throughout human
history that was mainly used to dispose of unwanted children,^[1]^: 61
its main purpose the prevention of resources being spent on weak or
disabled offspring. Unwanted infants were normally abandoned to die of
exposure, but in some societies they were deliberately killed.
Infanticide is now widely illegal, but in some places the practice is
tolerated or the prohibition not strictly enforced. Infanticide is
reportedly used by the state of North Korea as a punitive or
social-control measure,^[citation needed] and may be used or have been
used recently in other totalitarian states, also in some tribal
societies.
Most Stone Age human societies routinely practiced infanticide, and
estimates of children killed by infanticide in the Mesolithic and
Neolithic eras vary from 15 to 50 percent. Infanticide continued to be
common in most societies after the historical era began, including
ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the Phoenicians, ancient China, ancient
Japan, Aboriginal Australia, Native Americans, and Native Alaskans.
Infanticide became forbidden in Europe and the Near East during the 1st
millennium. Christianity forbade infanticide from its earliest times,
which led Constantine the Great and Valentinian I to ban infanticide
across the Roman Empire in the 4th century. The practice ceased in
Arabia in the 7th century after the founding of Islam, since the Quran
prohibits infanticide. Infanticide of male babies had become uncommon
in China by the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), whereas infanticide of female
babies became more common during the One-Child Policy era (1979-2015).
During the period of Company rule in India, the East India Company
attempted to eliminate infanticide but were only partially successful,
and female infanticide in some parts of India still continues.
Infanticide is now very rare in industrialised countries but may
persist elsewhere.
Parental infanticide researchers have found that mothers are far more
likely than fathers to be the perpetrators of neonaticide^[2] and
slightly more likely to commit infanticide in general.^[3]
[ ]
Contents
* 1 History
+ 1.1 Paleolithic and Neolithic
+ 1.2 In ancient history
o 1.2.1 In the New World
o 1.2.2 In the Old World
# 1.2.2.1 Ancient Egypt
# 1.2.2.2 Carthage
# 1.2.2.3 Greece and Rome
# 1.2.2.4 Middle Ages
# 1.2.2.5 Judaism
# 1.2.2.6 Pagan European tribes
+ 1.3 Christianity
+ 1.4 Arabia
+ 1.5 Islam
+ 1.6 Ukraine and Russia
+ 1.7 Great Britain
+ 1.8 Asia
o 1.8.1 China
o 1.8.2 Japan
o 1.8.3 India
+ 1.9 Africa
+ 1.10 Australia
o 1.10.1 South Australia and Victoria
o 1.10.2 Western Australia
o 1.10.3 Australian Capital Territory
o 1.10.4 New South Wales
o 1.10.5 Northern Territory
+ 1.11 North America
o 1.11.1 Inuit
o 1.11.2 Canada
o 1.11.3 Native Americans
o 1.11.4 Mexico
+ 1.12 South America
o 1.12.1 Brazil
o 1.12.2 Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia
* 2 Modern times
+ 2.1 Benin
+ 2.2 Mainland China
+ 2.3 India
+ 2.4 Pakistan
+ 2.5 Oceania
+ 2.6 England and Wales
+ 2.7 United States
+ 2.8 Canada
+ 2.9 Spain
* 3 Explanations for the practice
+ 3.1 Religious
+ 3.2 Economic
o 3.2.1 UK 18th and 19th century
+ 3.3 Population control
+ 3.4 Psychological
o 3.4.1 Evolutionary psychology
o 3.4.2 "Early infanticidal childrearing"
o 3.4.3 Wider effects
+ 3.5 Psychiatric
+ 3.6 Sex selection
* 4 Current law
+ 4.1 Australia
+ 4.2 Canada
+ 4.3 England and Wales
+ 4.4 The Netherlands
+ 4.5 Romania
+ 4.6 United States
o 4.6.1 State Legislation
o 4.6.2 Federal Legislation
* 5 Prevention
+ 5.1 Sex education and birth control
+ 5.2 Psychiatric intervention
+ 5.3 Safe surrender
+ 5.4 Employment
* 6 In animals
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links
History[edit]
Infanticidio by Mexican artist Antonio Garcia Vega.
The practice of infanticide has taken many forms over time. Child
sacrifice to supernatural figures or forces, such as that believed to
have been practiced in ancient Carthage, may be only the most notorious
example in the ancient world.
A frequent method of infanticide in ancient Europe and Asia was simply
to abandon the infant, leaving it to die by exposure (i.e.,
hypothermia, hunger, thirst, or animal attack).^[4]^[5]
On at least one island in Oceania, infanticide was carried out until
the 20th century by suffocating the infant,^[6] while in pre-Columbian
Mesoamerica and in the Inca Empire it was carried out by sacrifice (see
below).
Paleolithic and Neolithic[edit]
Many Neolithic groups routinely resorted to infanticide in order to
control their numbers so that their lands could support them. Joseph
Birdsell believed that infanticide rates in prehistoric times were
between 15% and 50% of the total number of births,^[7] while Laila
Williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15% to 20%.^[1]^: 66
Both anthropologists believed that these high rates of infanticide
persisted until the development of agriculture during the Neolithic
Revolution.^[8]^: 19 Comparative anthropologists have calculated that
50% of female newborn babies were killed by their parents during the
Paleolithic era.^[9] From the infants hominid skulls (e.g. Taung child
skull) that had been traumatized, has been proposed cannibalism by
Raymond A. Dart.^[10] The children were not necessarily actively
killed, but neglect and intentional malnourishment may also have
occurred, as proposed by Vicente Lull as an explanation for an apparent
surplus of men and the below average height of women in prehistoric
Menorca.^[11]
In ancient history[edit]
In the New World[edit]
Main article: Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures
Archaeologists have uncovered physical evidence of child sacrifice at
several locations.^[8]^: 16-22 Some of the best attested examples are
the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in
Mesoamerica and the Inca Empire.^[12]^[13]^[14]
In the Old World[edit]
Three thousand bones of young children, with evidence of sacrificial
rituals, have been found in Sardinia. Pelasgians offered a sacrifice of
every tenth child during difficult times. Syrians sacrificed children
to Jupiter and Juno. Many remains of children have been found in Gezer
excavations with signs of sacrifice. Child skeletons with the marks of
sacrifice have been found also in Egypt dating 950-720 BCE.^[citation
needed] In Carthage "[child] sacrifice in the ancient world reached its
infamous zenith".^[attribution needed]^[8]^: 324 Besides the
Carthaginians, other Phoenicians, and the Canaanites, Moabites and
Sepharvites offered their first-born as a sacrifice to their gods.
Ancient Egypt[edit]
In Egyptian households, at all social levels, children of both sexes
were valued and there is no evidence of infanticide.^[15] The religion
of the Ancient Egyptians forbade infanticide and during the Greco-Roman
period they rescued abandoned babies from manure heaps, a common method
of infanticide by Greeks or Romans, and were allowed to either adopt
them as foundling or raise them as slaves, often giving them names such
as "copro -" to memorialize their rescue.^[16] Strabo considered it a
peculiarity of the Egyptians that every child must be reared.^[17]
Diodorus indicates infanticide was a punishable offence.^[18] Egypt was
heavily dependent on the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate the
land and in years of low inundation, severe famine could occur with
breakdowns in social order resulting, notably between 930-1070 CE and
1180-1350 CE. Instances of cannibalism are recorded during these
periods but it is unknown if this happened during the pharaonic era of
Ancient Egypt.^[19] Beatrix Midant-Reynes describes human sacrifice as
having occurred at Abydos in the early dynastic period (c.
3150-2850 BCE),^[20] while Jan Assmann asserts there is no clear
evidence of human sacrifice ever happening in Ancient Egypt.^[21]
Carthage[edit]
Main article: Carthaginian religion - Child Sacrifice Question
According to Shelby Brown, Carthaginians, descendants of the
Phoenicians, sacrificed infants to their gods.^[22] Charred bones of
hundreds of infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological
sites. One such area harbored as many as 20,000 burial urns.^[22]
Skeptics suggest that the bodies of children found in Carthaginian and
Phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children that
died naturally.^[23]
Plutarch (c. 46-120 CE) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian,
Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo. The Hebrew Bible also mentions
what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the
Tophet (from the Hebrew taph or toph, to burn) by the Canaanites.
Writing in the 3rd century BCE, Kleitarchos, one of the historians of
Alexander the Great, described that the infants rolled into the flaming
pit. Diodorus Siculus wrote that babies were roasted to death inside
the burning pit of the god Baal Hamon, a bronze statue.^[24]^[25]
Greece and Rome[edit]
Medea killing her sons, by Eugene Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862).
The historical Greeks considered the practice of adult and child
sacrifice barbarous,^[26] however, the exposure of newborns was widely
practiced in ancient Greece.^[27]^[28]^[29] It was advocated by
Aristotle in the case of congenital deformity: "As to the exposure of
children, let there be a law that no deformed child shall
live."^[30]^[31] In Greece, the decision to expose a child was
typically the father's, although in Sparta the decision was made by a
group of elders.^[32] Exposure was the preferred method of disposal, as
that act in itself was not considered to be murder; moreover, the
exposed child technically had a chance of being rescued by the gods or
any passersby.^[33] This very situation was a recurring motif in Greek
mythology.^[34] To notify the neighbors of a birth of a child, a woolen
strip was hung over the front door to indicate a female baby and an
olive branch to indicate a boy had been born. Families did not always
keep their new child. After a woman had a baby, she would show it to
her husband. If the husband accepted it, it would live, but if he
refused it, it would die. Babies would often be rejected if they were
illegitimate, unhealthy or deformed, the wrong sex, or too great a
burden on the family. These babies would not be directly killed, but
put in a clay pot or jar and deserted outside the front door or on the
roadway. In ancient Greek religion, this practice took the
responsibility away from the parents because the child would die of
natural causes, for example, hunger, asphyxiation or exposure to the
elements.
The practice was prevalent in ancient Rome, as well. Philo was the
first philosopher to speak out against it.^[35]^[36] A letter from a
Roman citizen to his sister, or a pregnant wife from her husband,^[37]
dating from 1 BCE, demonstrates the casual nature with which
infanticide was often viewed:
"I am still in Alexandria. ... I beg and plead with you to take
care of our little child, and as soon as we receive wages, I
will send them to you. In the meantime, if (good fortune to
you!) you give birth, if it is a boy, let it live; if it is a
girl, expose it.",^[38]^[39] "If you give birth to a boy, keep
it. If it is a girl, expose it. Try not to worry. I'll send the
money as soon as we get paid."^[40]
Massacre of the Innocents by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860
In some periods of Roman history it was traditional for a newborn to be
brought to the pater familias, the family patriarch, who would then
decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to die by
exposure.^[41] The Twelve Tables of Roman law obliged him to put to
death a child that was visibly deformed. The concurrent practices of
slavery and infanticide contributed to the "background noise" of the
crises during the Republic.^[41]
Infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in 374, but offenders
were rarely if ever prosecuted.^[42]
According to mythology, Romulus and Remus, twin infant sons of the war
god Mars, survived near-infanticide after being tossed into the Tiber
River. According to the myth, they were raised by wolves, and later
founded the city of Rome.
Middle Ages[edit]
Whereas theologians and clerics preached sparing their lives, newborn
abandonment continued as registered in both the literature record and
in legal documents.^[5]^: 16 According to William Lecky, exposure in
the early Middle Ages, as distinct from other forms of infanticide,
"was practiced on a gigantic scale with absolute impunity, noticed by
writers with most frigid indifference and, at least in the case of
destitute parents, considered a very venial offence".^[43]^: 355-56 The
first foundling house in Europe was established in Milan in 787 on
account of the high number of infanticides and out-of-wedlock births.
The Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Rome was founded by Pope Innocent
III because women were throwing their infants into the Tiber
river.^[44]
Unlike other European regions, in the Middle Ages the German mother had
the right to expose the newborn.^[45]
In the High Middle Ages, abandoning unwanted children finally eclipsed
infanticide.^[citation needed] Unwanted children were left at the door
of church or abbey, and the clergy was assumed to take care of their
upbringing. This practice also gave rise to the first orphanages.
However, very high sex ratios were common in even late medieval Europe,
which may indicate sex-selective infanticide.^[46]
Judaism[edit]
In this depiction of the Binding of Isaac by Julius Schnorr von
Karolsfeld, 1860, Abraham is shown not sacrificing Isaac.
Judaism prohibits infanticide, and has for some time, dating back to at
least early Common Era. Roman historians wrote about the ideas and
customs of other peoples, which often diverged from their own. Tacitus
recorded that the Jews "take thought to increase their numbers, for
they regard it as a crime to kill any late-born children".^[47]
Josephus, whose works give an important insight into 1st-century
Judaism, wrote that God "forbids women to cause abortion of what is
begotten, or to destroy it afterward".^[48]
Pagan European tribes[edit]
In his book Germania, Tacitus wrote in 98 CE that the ancient Germanic
tribes enforced a similar prohibition. He found such mores remarkable
and commented: "To restrain generation and the increase of children, is
esteemed [by the Germans] an abominable sin, as also to kill infants
newly born."^[49] It has become clear over the millennia, though, that
Tacitus' description was inaccurate; the consensus of modern
scholarship significantly differs. John Boswell believed that in
ancient Germanic tribes unwanted children were exposed, usually in the
forest.^[50]^: 218 "It was the custom of the [Teutonic] pagans, that if
they wanted to kill a son or daughter, they would be killed before they
had been given any food."^[50]^: 211 Usually children born out of
wedlock were disposed of that way.
In his highly influential Pre-historic Times, John Lubbock described
burnt bones indicating the practice of child sacrifice in pagan
Britain.^[51]
The last canto, Marjatan poika (Son of Marjatta), of Finnish national
epic Kalevala describes assumed infanticide. Vaeinaemoeinen orders the
infant bastard son of Marjatta to be drowned in a marsh.
The Islendingabok, the main source for the early history of Iceland,
recounts that on the Conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 1000 it
was provided - in order to make the transition more palatable to Pagans
- that "the old laws allowing exposure of newborn children will remain
in force". However, this provision - among other concessions made at
the time to the Pagans - was abolished some years later.
Christianity[edit]
Christianity explicitly rejects infanticide. The Teachings of the
Apostles or Didache said "thou shalt not kill a child by abortion,
neither shalt thou slay it when born".^[52] The Epistle of Barnabas
stated an identical command, both thus conflating abortion and
infanticide.^[53] Apologists Tertullian, Athenagoras, Minucius Felix,
Justin Martyr and Lactantius also maintained that exposing a baby to
death was a wicked act.^[4] In 318, Constantine I considered
infanticide a crime, and in 374, Valentinian I mandated the rearing of
all children (exposing babies, especially girls, was still common). The
Council of Constantinople declared that infanticide was homicide, and
in 589, the Third Council of Toledo took measures against the custom of
killing their own children.^[42]
Arabia[edit]
Some Muslim sources allege that pre-Islamic Arabian society practiced
infanticide as a form of "post-partum birth control".^[54] The word wad
was used to describe the practice.^[55] These sources state that
infanticide was practiced either out of destitution (thus practiced on
males and females alike), or as "disappointment and fear of social
disgrace felt by a father upon the birth of a daughter".^[54]
Some authors believe that there is little evidence that infanticide was
prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia or early Muslim history, except for the
case of the Tamim tribe, who practiced it during severe famine
according to Islamic sources.^[56] Others state that "female
infanticide was common all over Arabia during this period of time"
(pre-Islamic Arabia), especially by burying alive a female
newborn.^[8]^: 59 ^[57] A tablet discovered in Yemen, forbidding the
people of a certain town from engaging in the practice, is the only
written reference to infanticide within the peninsula in pre-Islamic
times.^[58]
Islam[edit]
Infanticide is explicitly prohibited by the Qur'an.^[59] "And do not
kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance and
yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong."^[60] Together
with polytheism and homicide, infanticide is regarded as a grave sin
(see 6:151 and 60:12).^[54] Infanticide is also implicitly denounced in
the story of Pharaoh's slaughter of the male children of Israelites
(see 2:49; 7:127; 7:141; 14:6; 28:4; 40:25).^[54]
Ukraine and Russia[edit]
Femme Russe abandonnant ses enfants `a des loups ("Russian Woman
Abandoning Her Children to the Wolves"). Charles-Michel Geoffroy [fr],
1845
Infanticide may have been practiced as human sacrifice, as part of the
pagan cult of Perun. Ibn Fadlan describes sacrificial practices at the
time of his trip to Kiev Rus (present-day Ukraine) in 921-922, and
describes an incident of a woman voluntarily sacrificing her life as
part of a funeral rite for a prominent leader, but makes no mention of
infanticide. The Primary Chronicle, one of the most important literary
sources before the 12th century, indicates that human sacrifice to
idols may have been introduced by Vladimir the Great in 980. The same
Vladimir the Great formally converted Kiev Rus into Christianity just
8 years later, but pagan cults continued to be practiced clandestinely
in remote areas as late as the 13th century.
American explorer George Kennan noted that among the Koryaks, a
Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, infanticide was still common
in the nineteenth century. One of a pair of twins was always
sacrificed.^[61]
Great Britain[edit]
Infanticide (as a crime) gained both popular and bureaucratic
significance in Victorian Britain. By the mid-19th century, in the
context of criminal lunacy and the insanity defence, killing one's own
child(ren) attracted ferocious debate, as the role of women in society
was defined by motherhood, and it was thought that any woman who
murdered her own child was by definition insane and could not be held
responsible for her actions. Several cases were subsequently
highlighted during the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864-66,
as a particular felony where an effective avoidance of the death
penalty had informally begun.
Baby killer Amelia Dyer (pictured upon entry to Wells Asylum in 1893).
Her trial led to stricter laws for adoption and raised the profile of
the fledgling National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children (NSPCC) which formed in 1884.^[62]
The New Poor Law Act of 1834 ended parish relief for unmarried mothers
and allowed fathers of illegitimate children to avoid paying for "child
support".^[63] Unmarried mothers then received little assistance and
the poor were left with the option either entering the workhouse,
prostitution, infanticide or abortion. By the middle of the century
infanticide was common for social reasons, such as illegitimacy, and
the introduction of child life insurance additionally encouraged some
women to kill their children for gain. Examples are Mary Ann Cotton,
who murdered many of her 15 children as well as three husbands,
Margaret Waters, the 'Brixton Baby Farmer', a professional baby-farmer
who was found guilty of infanticide in 1870, Jessie King hanged in
1889, Amelia Dyer, the 'Angel Maker', who murdered over 400 babies in
her care, and Ada Chard-Williams, a baby farmer who was later hanged at
Newgate prison.
The Times reported that 67 infants were murdered in London in 1861 and
150 more recorded as "found dead", many of which were found on the
streets. Another 250 were suffocated, half of them not recorded as
accidental deaths. The report noted that "infancy in London has to
creep into life in the midst of foes."^[64]
Recording a birth as a still-birth was also another way of concealing
infanticide because still-births did not need to be registered until
1926 and they did not need to be buried in public cemeteries.^[65] In
1895 The Sun (London) published an article "Massacre of the Innocents"
highlighting the dangers of baby-farming, in the recording of
stillbirths and quoting Braxton-Hicks, the London Coroner, on lying-in
houses: "I have not the slightest doubt that a large amount of crime is
covered by the expression 'still-birth'. There are a large number of
cases of what are called newly-born children, which are found all over
England, more especially in London and large towns, abandoned in
streets, rivers, on commons, and so on." He continued "a great deal of
that crime is due to what are called lying-in houses, which are not
registered, or under the supervision of that sort, where the people who
act as midwives constantly, as soon as the child is born, either drop
it into a pail of water or smother it with a damp cloth. It is a very
common thing, also, to find that they bash their heads on the floor and
break their skulls."^[66]
The last British woman to be executed for infanticide of her own child
was Rebecca Smith, who was hanged in Wiltshire in 1849.
The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 required local authorities to be
notified within 48 hours of changes in custody or the death of children
under seven years. Under the Children's Act of 1908 "no infant could be
kept in a home that was so unfit and so overcrowded as to endanger its
health, and no infant could be kept by an unfit nurse who threatened,
by neglect or abuse, its proper care, and maintenance."
Asia[edit]
China[edit]
Burying Babies in China (p. 40, March 1865, XXII)^[67]
As of the 3rd century BC, short of execution, the harshest penalties
were imposed on practitioners of infanticide by the legal codes of the
Qin dynasty and Han dynasty of ancient China.^[68]
China's society practiced sex selective infanticide. Philosopher Han
Fei Tzu, a member of the ruling aristocracy of the 3rd century BCE, who
developed a school of law, wrote: "As to children, a father and mother
when they produce a boy congratulate one another, but when they produce
a girl they put it to death."^[69] Among the Hakka people, and in
Yunnan, Anhui, Sichuan, Jiangxi and Fujian a method of killing the baby
was to put her into a bucket of cold water, which was called "baby
water".^[70]
Infanticide was reported as early as the 3rd century BCE, and, by the
time of the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), it was widespread in some
provinces. Belief in transmigration allowed poor residents of the
country to kill their newborn children if they felt unable to care for
them, hoping that they would be reborn in better circumstances.
Furthermore, some Chinese did not consider newborn children fully
"human" and saw "life" beginning at some point after the sixth month
after birth.^[71]
The Venetian explorer Marco Polo claimed to have seen newborns exposed
in Manzi.^[72] Contemporary writers from the Song dynasty note that, in
Hubei and Fujian provinces, residents would only keep three sons and
two daughters (among poor farmers, two sons, and one daughter), and
kill all babies beyond that number at birth.^[73] Initially the sex of
the child was only one factor to consider. By the time of the Ming
Dynasty, however (1368-1644), male infanticide was becoming
increasingly uncommon. The prevalence of female infanticide remained
high much longer. The magnitude of this practice is subject to some
dispute; however, one commonly quoted estimate is that, by late Qing,
between one fifth and one-quarter of all newborn girls, across the
entire social spectrum, were victims of infanticide. If one includes
excess mortality among female children under 10 (ascribed to
gender-differential neglect), the share of victims rises to one
third.^[74]^[75]^[76]
Scottish physician John Dudgeon, who worked in Peking, China, during
the early 20th century said that, "Infanticide does not prevail to the
extent so generally believed among us, and in the north, it does not
exist at all."^[77]
Sex ratio at birth in mainland China, males per 100 females, 1980-2010.
Gender-selected abortion or sex identification (without medical
uses^[78]^[79]), abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in
present-day Mainland China. Nevertheless, the US State Department,^[80]
and the human rights organization Amnesty International^[81] have all
declared that Mainland China's family planning programs, called the one
child policy (which has since changed to a two-child policy^[82]),
contribute to infanticide.^[83]^[84]^[85] The sex gap between males and
females aged 0-19 years old was estimated to be 25 million in 2010 by
the United Nations Population Fund.^[86] But in some cases, in order to
avoid Mainland China's family planning programs, parents will not
report to government when a child is born (in most cases a girl), so
she or he will not have an identity in the government and they can keep
on giving birth until they are satisfied, without fines or punishment.
In 2017, the government announced that all children without an identity
can now have an identity legally, known as family register.^[87]
Japan[edit]
Since feudal Edo era Japan the common slang for infanticide was
"mabiki" (ki) which means to pull plants from an overcrowded garden. A
typical method in Japan was smothering the baby's mouth and nose with
wet paper.^[88] It became common as a method of population control.
Farmers would often kill their second or third sons. Daughters were
usually spared, as they could be married off, sold off as servants or
prostitutes, or sent off to become geishas.^[89] Mabiki persisted in
the 19th century and early 20th century.^[90] To bear twins was
perceived as barbarous and unlucky and efforts were made to hide or
kill one or both twins.^[91]
India[edit]
Main article: Infanticide in India
Hindu Woman carrying her child to be drowned in the River Ganges at
Bengal (1852)^[92]
Hindoo Mother Sacrificing her infant (November 1853, X, p. 120)^[93]
Female infanticide of newborn girls was systematic in feudatory Rajputs
in South Asia for illegitimate female children during the Middle Ages.
According to Firishta, as soon as the illegitimate female child was
born she was held "in one hand, and a knife in the other, that any
person who wanted a wife might take her now, otherwise she was
immediately put to death".^[94] The practice of female infanticide was
also common among the Kutch, Kehtri, Nagar, Bengal, Miazed, Kalowries
and Sindh communities.^[95]
It was not uncommon that parents threw a child to the sharks in the
Ganges River as a sacrificial offering. The East India Company
administration were unable to outlaw the custom until the beginning of
the 19th century.^[96]^: 78
According to social activists, female infanticide has remained a
problem in India into the 21st century, with both NGOs and the
government conducting awareness campaigns to combat it.^[97]
Africa[edit]
In some African societies some neonates were killed because of beliefs
in evil omens or because they were considered unlucky. Twins were
usually put to death in Arebo; as well as by the Nama people of South
West Africa; in the Lake Victoria Nyanza region; by the Tswana in
Portuguese East Africa; in some parts of Igboland, Nigeria twins were
sometimes abandoned in a forest at birth (as depicted in Things Fall
Apart), oftentimes one twin was killed or hidden by midwives of
wealthier mothers; and by the !Kung people of the Kalahari
Desert.^[8]^: 160-61 The Kikuyu, Kenya's most populous ethnic group,
practiced ritual killing of twins.^[98]
Infanticide is rooted in the old traditions and beliefs prevailing all
over the country. A survey conducted by Disability Rights International
found that 45% of women interviewed by them in Kenya were pressured to
kill their children born with disabilities. The pressure is much higher
in the rural areas, with every two mothers being forced out of
three.^[99]
Australia[edit]
Literature suggests infanticide may have occurred reasonably commonly
among Indigenous Australians, in all areas of Australia prior to
European settlement. Infanticide may have continued to occur quite
often up until the 1960s. An 1866 issue of The Australian News for Home
Readers informed readers that "the crime of infanticide is so prevalent
amongst the natives that it is rare to see an infant".^[100]
Author Susanna de Vries in 2007 told a newspaper that her accounts of
Aboriginal violence, including infanticide, were censored by publishers
in the 1980s and 1990s. She told reporters that the censorship "stemmed
from guilt over the stolen children question".^[101] Keith Windschuttle
weighed in on the conversation, saying this type of censorship started
in the 1970s.^[101] In the same article Louis Nowra suggested that
infanticide in customary Aboriginal law may have been because it was
difficult to keep an abundant number of Aboriginal children alive;
there were life-and-death decisions modern-day Australians no longer
have to face.^[101]
South Australia and Victoria[edit]
According to William D. Rubinstein, "Nineteenth-century European
observers of Aboriginal life in South Australia and Victoria reported
that about 30% of Aboriginal infants were killed at birth."^[102]
James Dawson wrote a passage about infanticide among Indigenous people
in the western district of Victoria, which stated that "Twins are as
common among them as among Europeans; but as food is occasionally very
scarce, and a large family troublesome to move about, it is lawful and
customary to destroy the weakest twin child, irrespective of sex. It is
usual also to destroy those which are malformed."^[103]
He also wrote "When a woman has children too rapidly for the
convenience and necessities of the parents, she makes up her mind to
let one be killed, and consults with her husband which it is to be. As
the strength of a tribe depends more on males than females, the girls
are generally sacrificed. The child is put to death and buried, or
burned without ceremony; not, however, by its father or mother, but by
relatives. No one wears mourning for it. Sickly children are never
killed on account of their bad health, and are allowed to die
naturally."^[103]
Western Australia[edit]
In 1937, a reverend in the Kimberley offered a "baby bonus" to
Aboriginal families as a deterrent against infanticide and to increase
the birthrate of the local Indigenous population.^[104]
Australian Capital Territory[edit]
A Canberran journalist in 1927 wrote of the "cheapness of life" to the
Aboriginal people local to the Canberra area 100 years before. "If
drought or bush fires had devastated the country and curtailed food
supplies, babies got a short shift. Ailing babies, too would not be
kept" he wrote.^[105]
New South Wales[edit]
A bishop wrote in 1928 that it was common for Aboriginal Australians to
restrict the size of their tribal groups, including by infanticide, so
that the food resources of the tribal area may be sufficient for
them.^[106]
Northern Territory[edit]
Annette Hamilton, a professor of anthropology at Macquarie University
who carried out research in the Aboriginal community of Maningrida in
Arnhem Land during the 1960s wrote that prior to that time
part-European babies born to Aboriginal mothers had not been allowed to
live, and that 'mixed-unions are frowned on by men and women alike as a
matter of principle'.^[107]
North America[edit]
Inuit[edit]
There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of
newborn female infanticide in the Inuit population. Carmel Schrire
mentions diverse studies ranging from 15 to 50% to 80%.^[108]
Polar Inuit (Inughuit) killed the child by throwing him or her into the
sea.^[109] There is even a legend in Inuit mythology, "The Unwanted
Child", where a mother throws her child into the fjord.
The Yukon and the Mahlemuit tribes of Alaska exposed the female
newborns by first stuffing their mouths with grass before leaving them
to die.^[110] In Arctic Canada the Inuit exposed their babies on the
ice and left them to die.^[43]^: 354
Female Inuit infanticide disappeared in the 1930s and 1940s after
contact with the Western cultures from the South.^[111]
Canada[edit]
The Handbook of North American Indians reports infanticide among the
Dene Natives and those of the Mackenzie Mountains.^[112]^[113]
Native Americans[edit]
In the Eastern Shoshone there was a scarcity of Indian women as a
result of female infanticide.^[114] For the Maidu Native Americans
twins were so dangerous that they not only killed them, but the mother
as well.^[115] In the region known today as southern Texas, the Mariame
Indians practiced infanticide of females on a large scale. Wives had to
be obtained from neighboring groups.^[116]
Mexico[edit]
Bernal Diaz recounted that, after landing on the Veracruz coast, they
came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca. "That day they had
sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood
and hearts to that accursed idol".^[117] In The Conquest of New Spain
Diaz describes more child sacrifices in the towns before the Spaniards
reached the large Aztec city Tenochtitlan.
South America[edit]
Although academic data of infanticides among the indigenous people in
South America is not as abundant as that of North America, the
estimates seem to be similar.
Brazil[edit]
The Tapirape indigenous people of Brazil allowed no more than three
children per woman, and no more than two of the same sex. If the rule
was broken infanticide was practiced.^[118] The Bororo killed all the
newborns that did not appear healthy enough. Infanticide is also
documented in the case of the Korubo people in the Amazon.^[119]
The Yanomami men killed children while raiding enemy villages.^[120]
Helena Valero, a Brazilian woman kidnapped by Yanomami warriors in the
1930s, witnessed a Karawetari raid on her tribe:
"They killed so many. I was weeping for fear and for pity but there
was nothing I could do. They snatched the children from their
mothers to kill them, while the others held the mothers tightly by
the arms and wrists as they stood up in a line. All the women wept.
... The men began to kill the children; little ones, bigger ones,
they killed many of them.".^[120]
Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia[edit]
While qhapaq hucha was practiced in the Peruvian large cities, child
sacrifice in the pre-Columbian tribes of the region is less documented.
However, even today studies on the Aymara Indians reveal high
incidences of mortality among the newborn, especially female deaths,
suggesting infanticide.^[121] The Abipones, a small tribe of Guaycuruan
stock, of about 5,000 by the end of the 18th century in Paraguay,
practiced systematic infanticide; with never more than two children
being reared in one family. The Machigenga killed their disabled
children. Infanticide among the Chaco in Paraguay was estimated as high
as 50% of all newborns in that tribe, who were usually buried.^[122]
The infanticidal custom had such roots among the Ayoreo in Bolivia and
Paraguay that it persisted until the late 20th century.^[123]
Modern times[edit]
See also: Missing women
Infanticide has become less common in the Western world. The frequency
has been estimated to be 1 in approximately 3000 to 5000 children of
all ages^[124] and 2.1 per 100,000 newborns per year.^[125] It is
thought that infanticide today continues at a much higher rate in areas
of extremely high poverty and overpopulation, such as parts of
India.^[126] Female infants, then and even now, are particularly
vulnerable, a factor in sex-selective infanticide. Recent estimates
suggest that over 100 million girls and women are 'missing' in
Asia.^[127]
Benin[edit]
In spite of the fact that it is illegal, in Benin, West Africa, parents
secretly continue with infanticidal customs.^[128]
Mainland China[edit]
There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in Mainland
China due to the one-child policy.^[129] In the 1990s, a certain
stretch of the Yangtze River was known to be a common site of
infanticide by drowning, until government projects made access to it
more difficult. Recent studies suggest that over 40 million girls and
women are missing in Mainland China (Klasen and Wink 2002).^[130]
India[edit]
The practice has continued in some rural areas of India.^[131]^[132]
Infanticide is illegal in India but still has the highest infanticide
rate in the world.^[133]
According to a recent report by the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF) up to 50 million girls and women are missing in India's
population as a result of systematic sex discrimination and sex
selective abortions.^[134]
Pakistan[edit]
Killings of newborn babies have been on the rise in Pakistan,
corresponding to an increase in poverty across the country.^[135] More
than 1,000 infants, mostly girls, were killed or abandoned to die in
Pakistan in 2009 according to a Pakistani charity organization.^[136]
The Edhi Foundation found 1,210 dead babies in 2010. Many more are
abandoned and left at the doorsteps of mosques. As a result, Edhi
centers feature signs "Do not murder, lay them here." Though female
infanticide is punishable by life in prison, such crimes are rarely
prosecuted.^[135]
Oceania[edit]
On November 28, 2008, The National, one of Papua New Guinea's two
largest newspapers at the time, ran a story entitled "Male Babies
Killed To Stop Fights"^[137] which claimed that in Agibu and Amosa
villages of Gimi region of Eastern Highlands province of Papua New
Guinea where tribal fighting in the region of Gimi has been going on
since 1986 (many of the clashes arising over claims of sorcery) women
had agreed that if they stopped producing males, allowing only female
babies to survive, their tribe's stock of boys would go down and there
would be no men in the future to fight. They had supposedly agreed to
have all newborn male babies killed. It is not known how many male
babies were supposedly killed by being smothered, but it had reportedly
happened to all males over a 10-year period.
However, this claim about male infanticide in Papua New Guinea was
probably just the result of inaccurate and sensationalistic news
reporting, because Salvation Army workers in the region of Gimi denied
that the supposed male infanticide actually happened, and said that the
tribal women were merely speaking hypothetically and hyperbolically
about male infanticide at a peace and reconciliation workshop in order
to make a point. The tribal women had never planned to actually kill
their own sons.^[138]
England and Wales[edit]
In England and Wales there were typically 30 to 50 homicides per
million children less than 1 year old between 1982 and 1996.^[139] The
younger the infant, the higher the risk.^[139] The rate for children 1
to 5 years was around 10 per million children.^[139] The homicide rate
of infants less than 1 year is significantly higher than for the
general population.^[139]
In English law infanticide is established as a distinct offence by the
Infanticide Acts. Defined as the killing of a child under 12 months of
age by their mother, the effect of the Acts are to establish a partial
defence to charges of murder.^[140]
United States[edit]
Further information: Born-Alive Infants Protection Act and Born alive
laws in the United States
In the United States the infanticide rate during the first hour of life
outside the womb dropped from 1.41 per 100,000 during 1963 to 1972 to
0.44 per 100,000 for 1974 to 1983; the rates during the first month
after birth also declined, whereas those for older infants rose during
this time.^[141] The legalization of abortion, which was completed in
1973, was the most important factor in the decline in neonatal
mortality during the period from 1964 to 1977, according to a study by
economists associated with the National Bureau of Economic
Research.^[141]^[142]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, 114 cases of infanticide by a parent were reported during
1964-1968.^[143]
Spain[edit]
In Spain, far-right political party Vox has claimed that female
perpetrators of infanticide outnumber male perpetrators of
femicide.^[144] However, neither the Spanish National Statistics
Institute nor the Ministry of the Interior keep data on the gender of
perpetrators, but victims of femicide consistently number higher than
victims of infanticide.^[144] From 2013 to March 2018, 28 infanticide
cases perpetrated by 22 mothers and three stepmothers were reported in
Spain.^[145]
Explanations for the practice[edit]
There are various reasons for infanticide. Neonaticide typically has
different patterns and causes than for the killing of older infants.
Traditional neonaticide is often related to economic necessity - the
inability to provide for the infant.
In the United Kingdom and the United States, older infants are
typically killed for reasons related to child abuse, domestic violence
or mental illness.^[139] For infants older than one day, younger
infants are more at risk, and boys are more at risk than girls.^[139]
Risk factors for the parent include: Family history of violence,
violence in a current relationship, history of abuse or neglect of
children, and personality disorder and/or depression.^[139]
Religious[edit]
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, "loopholes" were invented by
some suicidal members of Lutheran churches^[146] who wanted to avoid
the damnation that was promised by most Christian doctrine as a penalty
of suicide. One famous example of someone who wished to end their life
but avoid the eternity in hell was Christina Johansdotter (died 1740).
She was a Swedish murderer who killed a child in Stockholm with the
sole purpose of being executed. She is an example of those who seek
suicide through execution by committing a murder. It was a common act,
frequently targeting young children or infants as they were believed to
be free from sin, thus believing to go "straight to heaven".^[147]
Although most mainstream Christian denominations, including Lutherans,
view the murder of an innocent as being condemned in the Fifth
Commandment, the suicidal members of Lutheran churches who deliberately
killed children with the intent of getting executed were usually well
aware of Christian doctrine against murder, and planned to repent and
seek forgiveness of their sins afterwards. For example, in 18th century
Denmark up until the year 1767, murderers were given the opportunity to
repent of their sins before they were executed either way. But it's
ambiguous as to whether or not the perpetrators' repentance in this
situation is actually genuine, as some may genuinely regret their
actions, while others may not. In Denmark on the year of 1767, the
religiously motivated suicidal murders finally ceased in that country
with the abolishment of the death penalty.^[148]
In 1888, Lieut. F. Elton reported that Ugi beach people in the Solomon
Islands killed their infants at birth by burying them, and women were
also said to practice abortion. They reported that it was too much
trouble to raise a child, and instead preferred to buy one from the
bush people.^[149]
Economic[edit]
Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more
children born than the family is prepared to support. In societies that
are patrilineal and patrilocal, the family may choose to allow more
sons to live and kill some daughters, as the former will support their
birth family until they die, whereas the latter will leave economically
and geographically to join their husband's family, possibly only after
the payment of a burdensome dowry price. Thus the decision to bring up
a boy is more economically rewarding to the parents.^[8]^: 362-68
However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally
among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent
periods of the Roman Empire as during earlier, less affluent,
periods.^[8]^: 28-34, 187-92
Before the appearance of effective contraception, infanticide was a
common occurrence in ancient brothels. Unlike usual infanticide - where
historically girls have been more likely to be killed - prostitutes in
certain areas preferred to kill their male offspring.^[150]
UK 18th and 19th century[edit]
Instances of infanticide in Britain in 18th and 19th centuries is often
attributed to the economic position of the women, with juries
committing "pious perjury" in many subsequent murder cases. The
knowledge of the difficulties faced in the 18th century by those women
who attempted to keep their children can be seen as a reason for juries
to show compassion. If the woman chose to keep the child, society was
not set up to ease the pressure placed upon the woman, legally,
socially or economically.^[151]
In mid-18th century Britain there was assistance available for women
who were not able to raise their children. The Foundling Hospital
opened in 1756 and was able to take in some of the illegitimate
children. However, the conditions within the hospital caused Parliament
to withdraw funding and the governors to live off of their own
incomes.^[152] This resulted in a stringent entrance policy, with the
committee requiring that the hospital:
Will not receive a child that is more than a year old, nor the
child of a domestic servant, nor any child whose father can be
compelled to maintain it.^[153]
Once a mother had admitted her child to the hospital, the hospital did
all it could to ensure that the parent and child were not
re-united.^[153]
MacFarlane argues in Illegitimacy and Illegitimates in Britain (1980)
that English society greatly concerned itself with the burden that a
bastard child places upon its communities and had gone to some lengths
to ensure that the father of the child is identified in order to
maintain its well-being.^[154] Assistance could be gained through
maintenance payments from the father, however, this was capped "at a
miserable 2 s and 6 d a week".^[155] If the father fell behind with the
payments he could only be asked "to pay a maximum of 13 weeks
arrears".^[155]
Despite the accusations of some that women were getting a free
hand-out, there is evidence that many women were far from receiving
adequate assistance from their parish. "Within Leeds in 1822 ... relief
was limited to 1 s per week".^[156] Sheffield required women to enter
the workhouse, whereas Halifax gave no relief to the women who required
it. The prospect of entering the workhouse was certainly something to
be avoided. Lionel Rose quotes Dr Joseph Rogers in Massacre of the
Innocents ... (1986). Rogers, who was employed by a London workhouse in
1856 stated that conditions in the nursery were `wretchedly damp and
miserable ... [and] ... overcrowded with young mothers and their
infants'.^[157]
The loss of social standing for a servant girl was a particular problem
in respect of producing a bastard child as they relied upon a good
character reference in order to maintain their job and more
importantly, to get a new or better job. In a large number of trials
for the crime of infanticide, it is the servant girl that stood
accused.^[158] The disadvantage of being a servant girl is that they
had to live to the social standards of their superiors or risk
dismissal and no references. Whereas within other professions, such as
in the factory, the relationship between employer and employee was much
more anonymous and the mother would be better able to make other
provisions, such as employing a minder.^[159] The result of the lack of
basic social care in Britain in the 18th and 19th century is the
numerous accounts in court records of women, particularly servant
girls, standing trial for the murder of their child.^[160]
There may have been no specific offense of infanticide in England
before about 1623 because infanticide was a matter for the by
ecclesiastical courts, possibly because infant mortality from natural
causes was high (about 15% or one in six).^[161]
Thereafter the accusation of the suppression of bastard children by
lewd mothers was a crime incurring the presumption of guilt.^[162]
The Infanticide Acts are several laws. That of 1922 made the killing of
an infant child by its mother during the early months of life as a
lesser crime than murder. The acts of 1938 and 1939 abolished the
earlier act, but introduced the idea that postpartum depression was
legally to be regarded as a form of diminished responsibility.
Population control[edit]
Marvin Harris estimated that among Paleolithic hunters 23-50% of
newborn children were killed. He argued that the goal was to preserve
the 0.001% population growth of that time.^[163]^: 15 He also wrote
that female infanticide may be a form of population control.^[163]^: 5
Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of
potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to
relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. For
example, on the Melanesian island of Tikopia infanticide was used to
keep a stable population in line with its resource base.^[6] Research
by Marvin Harris and William Divale supports this argument, it has been
cited as an example of environmental determinism.^[164]
Psychological[edit]
Evolutionary psychology[edit]
Evolutionary psychology has proposed several theories for different
forms of infanticide. Infanticide by stepfathers, as well as child
abuse in general by stepfathers, has been explained by spending
resources on not genetically related children reducing reproductive
success (See the Cinderella effect and Infanticide (zoology)).
Infanticide is one of the few forms of violence more often done by
women than men. Cross-cultural research has found that this is more
likely to occur when the child has deformities or illnesses as well as
when there are lacking resources due to factors such as poverty, other
children requiring resources, and no male support. Such a child may
have a low chance of reproductive success in which case it would
decrease the mother's inclusive fitness, in particular since women
generally have a greater parental investment than men, to spend
resources on the child.^[165]
"Early infanticidal childrearing"[edit]
A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought,
considering the practice as "early infanticidal childrearing".^[166]^:
246-47 They attribute parental infanticidal wishes to massive
projection or displacement of the parents' unconscious onto the child,
because of intergenerational, ancestral abuse by their own
parents.^[167] Clearly, an infanticidal parent may have multiple
motivations, conflicts, emotions, and thoughts about their baby and
their relationship with their baby, which are often colored both by
their individual psychology, current relational context and attachment
history, and, perhaps most saliently, their psychopathology^[168]
Almeida, Merminod, and Schechter suggest that parents with fantasies,
projections, and delusions involving infanticide need to be taken
seriously and assessed carefully, whenever possible, by an
interdisciplinary team that includes infant mental health specialists
or mental health practitioners who have experience in working with
parents, children, and families.
Wider effects[edit]
In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there
is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children,
and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction
infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any
widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in
children.^[166]^: 261-62 Conversely, studying societies that practice
infanticide Geza Roheim reported that even infanticidal mothers in New
Guinea, who ate a child, did not affect the personality development of
the surviving children; that "these are good mothers who eat their own
children".^[169] Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between
female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however,
extensive negative effects.
Psychiatric[edit]
See also: Psychiatric disorders of childbirth
Postpartum psychosis is also a causative factor of infanticide. Stuart
S. Asch, MD, a Professor of Psychiatry at Cornell University
established the connections between some cases of infanticide and
post-partum depression.^[170]^,^[171] The books, From Cradle to
Grave,^[172] and The Death of Innocents,^[173] describe selected cases
of maternal infanticide and the investigative research of Professor
Asch working in concert with the New York City Medical Examiner's
Office. Stanley Hopwood wrote that childbirth and lactation entail
severe stress on the female sex, and that under certain circumstances
attempts at infanticide and suicide are common.^[174] A study published
in the American Journal of Psychiatry revealed that 44% of filicidal
fathers had a diagnosis of psychosis.^[175] In addition to postpartum
psychosis, dissociative psychopathology and sociopathy have also been
found to be associated with neonaticide in some cases^[176]
In addition, severe postpartum depression can lead to
infanticide.^[177]
Sex selection[edit]
Sex selection may be one of the contributing factors of infanticide. In
the absence of sex-selective abortion, sex-selective infanticide^[dead
link] can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The
biologically normal sex ratio for humans at birth is approximately 105
males per 100 females; normal ratios hardly ranging beyond
102-108.^[178] When a society has an infant male to female ratio which
is significantly higher or lower than the biological norm, and biased
data can be ruled out, sex selection can usually be inferred.^[179]
Current law[edit]
Australia[edit]
In New South Wales, infanticide is defined in Section 22A(1) of the
Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) as follows:^[180]
Where a woman by any willful act or omission causes the death of her
child, being a child under the age of twelve months, but at the time
of the act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by
reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving
birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation
consequent upon the birth of the child, then, notwithstanding that
the circumstances were such that but for this section the offense
would have amounted to murder, she shall be guilty of infanticide,
and may for such offense be dealt with and punished as if she had
been guilty of the offense of manslaughter of such child.
Because Infanticide is punishable as manslaughter, as per s24,^[181]
the maximum penalty for this offence is therefore 25 years
imprisonment.
In Victoria, infanticide is defined by Section 6 of the Crimes Act of
1958 with a maximum penalty of five years.^[182]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, infanticide is a specific offence under section 237 of the
Criminal Code. It is defined as a form of culpable homicide which is
neither murder nor manslaughter, and occurs when "a female person... by
a wilful act or omission... causes the death of her newly-born child
[defined as a child under one year of age], if at the time of the act
or omission she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth
to the child and by reason thereof or of the effect of lactation
consequent on the birth of the child her mind is then disturbed."^[183]
Infanticide is also a defence to murder, in that a person accused of
murder who successfully presents the defence is entitled to be
convicted of infanticide rather than murder.^[184]^[185] The maximum
sentence for infanticide is five years' imprisonment; by contrast, the
maximum sentence for manslaughter is life, and the mandatory sentence
for murder is life.^[183]
The offence derives from an offence created in English law in 1922,
which aimed to address the issue of judges and juries who were
reluctant to return verdicts of murder against women and girls who
killed their newborns out of poverty, depression, the shame of
illegitimacy, or otherwise desperate circumstances, since the mandatory
sentence was death (even though in those circumstances the death
penalty was likely not to be carried out). With infanticide as a
separate offence with a lesser penalty, convictions were more likely.
The offence of infanticide was created in Canada in 1948.^[184]
There is ongoing debate in the Canadian legal and political fields
about whether section 237 of the Criminal Code should be amended or
abolished altogether.^[186]
England and Wales[edit]
In England and Wales, the Infanticide Act 1938 describes the offense of
infanticide as one which would otherwise amount to murder (by his/her
mother) if the victim was older than 12 months and the mother was not
suffering from an imbalance of mind due to the effects of childbirth or
lactation. Where a mother who has killed such an infant has been
charged with murder rather than infanticide s.1(3) of the Act confirms
that a jury has the power to find alternative verdicts of Manslaughter
in English law or guilty but insane.
The Netherlands[edit]
Main article: Groningen Protocol
Infanticide is illegal in the Netherlands, although the maximum
sentence is lower than for homicide. The Groningen Protocol regulates
euthanasia for infants who are believed to "suffer hopelessly and
unbearably" under strict conditions.^[citation needed]
Romania[edit]
Article 200 of the Penal Code of Romania stipulates that the killing of
a newborn during the first 24 hours, by the mother who is in a state of
mental distress, shall be punished with imprisonment of one to five
years.^[187] The previous Romanian Penal Code also defined infanticide
(pruncucidere) as a distinct criminal offense, providing for punishment
of two to seven years imprisonment,^[188] recognizing the fact that a
mother's judgment may be impaired immediately after birth but did not
define the term "infant", and this had led to debates regarding the
precise moment when infanticide becomes homicide. This issue was
resolved^[how?] by the new Penal Code, which came into force in 2014.
United States[edit]
Further information: Born-Alive Infants Protection Act and Born alive
laws in the United States
While legislation regarding infanticide in the majority of Western
countries focuses on rehabilitation, believing that treatment and
education will prevent repetitive action, the United States remains
focused on delivering punishment. One justification for punishment is
the difficulty of implementing rehabilitation services. With an
overcrowded prison system, the United States can not provide the
necessary treatment and services.^[189]
State Legislation[edit]
In 2009, Texas state representative Jessica Farrar proposed legislation
that would define infanticide as a distinct and lesser crime than
homicide.^[190] Under the terms of the proposed legislation, if jurors
concluded that a mother's "judgment was impaired as a result of the
effects of giving birth or the effects of lactation following the
birth", they would be allowed to convict her of the crime of
infanticide, rather than murder.^[191] The maximum penalty for
infanticide would be two years in prison.^[191] Farrar's introduction
of this bill prompted liberal bioethics scholar Jacob M. Appel to call
her "the bravest politician in America".^[191]
Federal Legislation[edit]
The MOTHERS Act (Moms Opportunity To access Health, Education, Research
and Support), precipitated by the death of a Chicago woman with
postpartum psychosis was introduced in 2009. The act was ultimately
incorporated into the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act which
passed in 2010. The act requires screening for postpartum mood
disorders at any time of the adult lifespan as well as expands research
on postpartum depression. Provisions of the act also authorize grants
to support clinical services for women who have, or are at risk for,
postpartum psychosis.^[192]
Prevention[edit]
Sex education and birth control[edit]
Since infanticide, especially neonaticide, is often a response to an
unwanted birth,^[139] preventing unwanted pregnancies through improved
sex education and increased contraceptive access are advocated as ways
of preventing infanticide.^[193] Increased use of contraceptives and
access to safe legal abortions^[8]^[141]^: 122-23 have greatly reduced
neonaticide in many developed nations. Some say that where abortion is
illegal, as in Pakistan, infanticide would decline if safer legal
abortions were available.^[135]
Psychiatric intervention[edit]
Cases of infanticide have also garnered increasing attention and
interest from advocates for the mentally ill as well as organizations
dedicated to postpartum disorders. Following the trial of Andrea Yates,
a mother from the United States who garnered national attention for
drowning her 5 children, representatives from organizations such as the
Postpartum Support International and the Marce Society for Treatment
and Prevention of Postpartum Disorders began requesting clarification
of diagnostic criteria for postpartum disorders and improved guidelines
for treatments. While accounts of postpartum psychosis have dated back
over 2,000 years ago, perinatal mental illness is still largely
under-diagnosed despite postpartum psychosis affecting 1 to 2 per 1000
women.^[194]^[195] However, with clinical research continuing to
demonstrate the large role of rapid neurochemical fluctuation in
postpartum psychosis, prevention of infanticide points ever strongly
towards psychiatric intervention.^[citation needed]
Screening for psychiatric disorders or risk factors, and providing
treatment or assistance to those at risk may help prevent
infanticide.^[196] Current diagnostic considerations include symptoms,
psychological history, thoughts of self-harm or harming one's children,
physical and neurological examination, laboratory testing, substance
abuse, and brain imaging. As psychotic symptoms may fluctuate, it is
important that diagnostic assessments cover a wide range of
factors.^[citation needed]
While studies on the treatment of postpartum psychosis are scarce, a
number of case and cohort studies have found evidence describing the
effectiveness of lithium monotherapy for both acute and maintenance
treatment of postpartum psychosis, with the majority of patients
achieving complete remission. Adjunctive treatments include
electroconvulsive therapy, antipsychotic medication, or
benzodiazepines. Electroconvulsive therapy, in particular, is the
primary treatment for patients with catatonia, severe agitation, and
difficulties eating or drinking. Antidepressants should be avoided
throughout the acute treatment of postpartum psychosis due to risk of
worsening mood instability.^[197]
Though screening and treatment may help prevent infanticide, in the
developed world, significant proportions of neonaticides that are
detected occur in young women who deny their pregnancy and avoid
outside contacts, many of who may have limited contact with these
health care services.^[139]
Safe surrender[edit]
In some areas baby hatches or safe surrender sites, safe places for a
mother to anonymously leave an infant, are offered, in part to reduce
the rate of infanticide. In other places, like the United States,
safe-haven laws allow mothers to anonymously give infants to designated
officials; they are frequently located at hospitals and police and fire
stations. Additionally, some countries in Europe have the laws of
anonymous birth and confidential birth that allow mothers to give up an
infant after birth. In anonymous birth, the mother does not attach her
name to the birth certificate. In confidential birth, the mother
registers her name and information, but the document containing her
name is sealed until the child comes to age. Typically such babies are
put up for adoption, or cared for in orphanages.^[198]
Employment[edit]
Granting women employment raises their status and autonomy. Having a
gainful employment can raise the perceived worth of females. This can
lead to an increase in the number of women getting an education and a
decrease in the number of female infanticide. As a result, the infant
mortality rate will decrease and economic development will
increase.^[199]
In animals[edit]
Main article: Infanticide (zoology)
Occurs with animals, such as in Hanuman langurs.
The practice has been observed in many other species of the animal
kingdom since it was first seriously studied by Yukimaru
Sugiyama.^[200] These include from microscopic rotifers and insects, to
fish, amphibians, birds and mammals, including primates such as chacma
baboons.^[201]
According to studies carried out by Kyoto University in primates,
including certain types of gorillas and chimpanzees, several conditions
favor the tendency to kill their offspring in some species (to be
performed only by males), among them are: Nocturnal life, the absence
of nest construction, the marked sexual dimorphism in which the male is
much larger than the female, the mating in a specific season and the
high period of lactation without resumption of the estrus state in the
female.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Infanticide.
* Child euthanasia
* The Cruel Mother
* Female perversion
* Filicide
* Margaret Garner
* Jenufa (opera by Leos Janacek)
* List of countries by infant mortality rate
* La Llorona (Mexican legend)
* Medea (Euripides' play)
* Miyuki Ishikawa
* A Modest Proposal, by Jonathan Swift
* Overlaying, child-smothering during carer's sleep
* Sudden infant death syndrome
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Further reading[edit]
* Backhouse, Constance B. "Desperate women and compassionate courts:
infanticide in nineteenth-century Canada." University of Toronto
Law Journal 34.4 (1984): 447-78 online.
* Bechtold, Brigitte H., and Donna Cooper Graves. "The ties that
bind: Infanticide, gender, and society." History Compass 8.7
(2010): 704-17.
* Donovan, James M. "Infanticide and the Juries in France,
1825-1913." Journal of family history 16.2 (1991): 157-76.
* Feng, Wang; Campbell, Cameron; Lee, James. "Infant and Child
Mortality among the Qing Nobility." Population Studies (Nov 1994)
48#3 pp. 395-411; many upper-class Chinese couples regularly used
infanticide to control the number and sex of their infants.
* Giladi, Avner. "Some observations on infanticide in medieval Muslim
society." International Journal of Middle East Studies 22.2 (1990):
185-200 online.
* Hoffer, Peter, and N.E.H. Hull. Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in
England and America, 1558-1803 (1981).
* Kilday, A. A History of Infanticide in Britain, c. 1600 to the
Present (Springer, 2013).
* Langer, William L. "Infanticide: A historical survey." History of
Childhood Quarterly: the Journal of Psychohistory 1.3 (1974):
353-65.
* Leboutte, Rene. "Offense against family order: infanticide in
Belgium from the fifteenth through the early twentieth centuries."
Journal of the History of Sexuality 2.2 (1991): 159-85.
* Lee, Bernice J. "Female infanticide in China." Historical
Reflections/Reflexions Historiques (1981): 163-77 online.
* Lewis, Margaret Brannan. Infanticide and abortion in early modern
Germany (Routledge, 2016).
* Mays, Simon. "Infanticide in Roman Britain." Antiquity 67.257
(1993): 883-88.
* Mungello, David Emil. Drowning girls in China: Female infanticide
since 1650 (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).
* Oberman, Michelle. "Mothers who kill: coming to terms with modern
American infanticide." American Criminal Law Review 34 (1996) pp:
1-110 online.
* Pomeroy, Sarah B. "Infanticide in Hellenistic Greece" in A. Cameron
and A. Kuhrt, eds., Images of women in antiquity (Wayne State Univ
Press, 1983), pp 207-222.
* Rose, Lionel. Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Great
Britain 1800-1939 (1986).
* Wheeler, Kenneth H. "Infanticide in nineteenth-century Ohio."
Journal of Social History (1997): 407-18 online.
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